Saturday, January 17, 2009

Historia del seculo vinti, Parte 9


(Languages of this post: Interlingua, English)

Le nove era post 1945:

Le Secunde Guerra Mundial habeva producite profunde transformationes technic, social, e politic trans omne le mundo. Le competition inter le participantes in le guerra habeva accelerate le disveloppamento del technologia in un effortio pro producer armas plus destructive.

Le necessitate de usar aviones pro projectar destruction militar per bombas accelerava le disveloppamento de aviones plus grande, veloce, e efficiente, includente aviones a jecto, que stimulava le inauguration de systemas de transporte aeree extensive e efficiente.

Le guerra anque stimulava le disveloppamento de computatores pro rapidemente facer calculationes ballistic, pro exemplo, e pro punctar cannones e simile armas automaticamente. Iste necessitates militar fortemente stimulava recercas in le cybernetica e le eventual construction de robots pro uso in processos industrial.

Quando le horrores del campos de concentration del Nazis se revelava completemente al mundo, le humanitate anque perdeva su confidentia in su superioritate moral. Le destruction de Hiroshima e Nagasaki in Japon establiva que le disveloppamento del technologia--que usque le Prime Guerra Mundial symbolisava le progresso del civilisation e del perfectibilitate rational del humanitate--revelava que le specie human esseva animales facilemente capabile de destruction diabolic qui, con su nove technologia, mesmo poterea destruer omne su civilisationes e un grande parte del vita sur nostre planeta.

Le politica international anque habeva cambiate drasticamente. Si le prime e secunde guerras mundial esseva causate per interesses e ambitiones nationaliste, post 1945 (mille nove centos quaranta cinque) le unitate politic le plus importante deveniva blocos de nationes e interesses economic de diverse typos.

Corporationes transnational emergeva que poteva construer lor fabricas in paises ubi le impostos e le expensas de labor esseva le plus basse, e in le prosecution de lor interesses illos nunc poteva construer lor proprie systemas de alliantias e mesmo defiar le soveranitate del diverse paises in le quales illos conduceva lor activitates.

Al fin del seculo vinti emergeva un coherente systema de communication electronic international instantanee que comenciava le erosion de culturas local e national, e le humanitate totevia non sape si on potera controlar le evolution accelerante del nove technologia o si illo habera su proprie momento que controlara le futur evolution del humanitate.

Le annos immediatemente post le Secunde Guerra Mundial:

Como le russos e le americanos emergeva como le victores principal del Secunde Guerra Mundial, illes comenciava un processo de competition mutue post le guerra pro augmentar lor accesso al ressources natural del planeta.

Iste competition includeva le captura e controlo de statos cliente, e ambe paises habeva lor proprie ideologias que illes usava pro mantener lor populationes in ignorantia del ver objectivos de lor politicas, que, directemente exponite, involverea le justification del furto e del tortura.

Ma mesmo iste paises non voleva vider un repetition del destruction del prime e secunde guerras mundial, e con un pauco de difficultate illos cooperava in le formation de un altere societate de nationes. In 1945 (mille nove centos quaranta cinque) in un conferentia in San Francisco, Californnia, le major parte del paises independente del mundo signava le charta que establiva le organisation del Nationes Unite (ONU), que esserea basate sur iste principios:

(1) Equalitate soveran de omne le membros del organisation;

(2) Le solution de conflictos international per medios pacific;

(3) Le prohibition de intervention in le affaires interior de cata stato;

(4) Le pression sur le statos que non se habeva affiliate al ONU con le fin de preservar le pace e le securitate international;

(5) Le refusa de appoio del paises formalmente sanctionate per le membros del ONU;

(6) Le obligation de preservar le principios del charta per le membros del ONU.

Le ONU sperava que illo poterea evitar le fiascos del Societate de Nationes per

(1) Fomentar inter omne le nationes relationes de amicitate;

(2) Complir le cooperation international in problemas international de character economic, social, cultural, o humanitari;

(3) Establir le respecto al derectos e libertates fundamental de omne le population human;

(4) Servir como un centro que harmonisarea le effortios pro complir le anterior scopos commun.

Ben que su gestion pacificante ha prendite multiple formas, generalmente le ONU non ha potite resolver le grande conflictos international del secunde medietate del seculo vinti a causa del manco de su proprie fortias militar que poterea supprimer le fortias national de su membros, e su programmas de pacification ha debite limitar se principalmente a activitates informative e persuasive.

Le prohibition de intervention in le affaires interior de su membros anque ha habite un effecto paralysante sur multe decisiones importante del ONU. Le superpotentias anque pote poner lor veto a resolutiones del ONU que va contra lor interesses national, e iste mechanismo permitte que illos pote supprimer le interesses del plus parve e minus potente membros del ONU.

Le ONU non poteva prevenir que le Statos Unite e le Union Sovietic comenciava un guerra frigide characterisate per tension crescente que poteva resultar facilemente in un nove guerra atomic. Le duo paises comenciava un programma de construction de arsenales de bombatores e bombas de fission atomic que plus tarde devenirea missiles e bombas de fusion con capacitates explosive que poterea annihilar le major parte del vita sur nostre planeta. Iste duo arsenales esseva quasi equal in lor capacitates de destruction e produceva un equilibrio de terror inter ambe potentias.

Le Statos Unite e le Union Sovietic con lor alliatos produceva un mundo dividite in duo blocos. Le bloco occidental consisteva del Statos Unite e le paises circumferente le oceano (Le America del nord e le Europa occidental). Le bloco oriental, geographicamente plus unificate, consisteva del Europa oriental e del Union Sovietic.

Ambe blocos esseva similar in lor extension e in lor population, ma le bloco oriental habeva un population un pauco plus grande. Le Statos Unite e le Union Sovietic anque deveniva le potentias economic le plus grande. Usque 1950 (mille noventos cinquanta), le taxa de production del Statos Unite esseva 75% (septanta cinque pro cento) del production mundial.

In 1947 (mille nove centos quaranta e septe) le presidente statounitese, Harry S. Truman, inaugurava le Doctrina Truman, que consisteva de appoio in formas de creditos monetari e armamentos a altere governamentos que combatteva le communismo.

Le secretario de stato american, George C. Marshall, establiva un programa de "adjuta fraternal" in le Conferentia de Paris de 1947 (mille nove centos quaranta septe). Secundo iste programma, le Statos Unite fornirea le capital necesse pro reconstruer le infrastructura economic que le paises del Europa occidental habeva perdite durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial.

Al fin de iste programma, le Statos Unite habeva pagate unes 13.000.000.000 (dece tres billiones) dollares al principal beneficiarios del programma: Anglaterra, Francia, Italia, e Germania. Le scopo del Plan Marshall esseva fortificar iste paises de maniera que illos non caderea in le orbita sovietic.

Le Union Sovietic respondeva creante le Kominform (Bureau de Information Communiste), que integrava le paises sub su influentia. Le division inter le duo grande blocos deveniva plus radical, e un "Cortina de Ferro" secundo le expression de Winston Churchill, frustrava omne sperantia de un accordo pacific inter le duo blocos.

Le Statos Unite tunc establiva le Tractato del Atlantico Norte (OTAN), un alliantia militar que integrava omne le paises del occidente europee. Le russos respondeva con le Pacto de Varsovia, que organisava de un maniera simile le paises que illes controlava.

Verso 1956 (mille nove centos cinquanta e sex) iste crise entrava a in un periodo de relaxation intiate per le dirigente russe Nikita Khrushchev (1953-1964 [desde mille novecentos cinquanta tres usque mille nove centos quaranta quatro]), qui recognosceva que certe compromissos con le bloco occidental esseva necesse pro reducer le possibilitate de un guerra thermonuclear inter le russos e le americanos, recognoscite per omnes como un menacia vermente realistic al vita de omne le humanitate.

Le politica de coexistentia pacific inaugurate per Khrushchev non eliminava omne conflictos inter le duo blocos. Le Union Sovietic erigeva in Berlin un muro in 1961 (mille nove centos sexanta e un) pro separar physicamente le Germanias oriental e occidental. Le Statos Unite reimplaciava Francia in le guerra contra Vietnam in le qual le russos essayava establir un stato cliente in le nord e le americanos, in le sud.

In Cuba le sovieticos instalava bases de missiles, que quasi provocava un guerra nuclear con le Statos Unite. Khrushchev cedeva ante le demandas del presidente american, John F. Kennedy. Su prestigio in le Union Sovietic tunc diminueva e le potentia de su rivales politic cresceva, causante eventualmente su demission.

Durante iste annos, le Statos Unite e le Union Sovietic vigilava mutuemente lor capacitates bellic, evitante le possibilitate que ulle del duo colossos ganiava un avantage militar decisive sur le altere. (In 1952 [mille nove centos cinquanta e duo] le Statos Unite construeva le prime bomba de fusion nuclear [de hydrogeno a helio], e un anno postea le russos construeva lor proprie bomba H.)

Le Statos Unite e le Union Sovietic tunc inaugurava programmas pro construer satellites, submarinos atomic, e missiles con multiple capites nuclear in un effortio continue pro assecurar mesmo plus fortemente lor mutue capabilitate de annihilation total in caso de guerra.

Le angleses, le franceses, e le chineses anque inaugurava lor proprie programmas pro disveloppar armas nuclear, ma iste paises non disponeva del ressources economic pro equalar le arsenales american e sovietic.

Multe gente in le Statos Unite e le Union Sovietic comprendeva que un guerra inter illos resultarea in un cambio ecologic gigantesc sur le planeta que probabilemente significarea le extinction del racia human. Illes comenciava un campania pro limitar lor arsenales nuclear que eventualmente produceva resultos modeste post le Tractato de Moscova de 1963 (mille nove centos sexanta e tres) e alteres in Geneva, Helsinki, e Vienna. Le modestia de iste resultatos se debeva al carentia de confidentia mutue inter le duo paises e lor violation frequente de accordos anterior.

Inter 1950 (mille nove centos cinquanta) e 1970 (mille nove centos septanta) le blocos dominate per le Statos Unite e le Union Sovietic comenciava a perder lor homogeneitate. Le processo esseva lente, e illo non esseva multo obvie ante le secunde parte del decada inter 1960 e 1970.

In le mundo occidental, Francia incoragiava un Europa unite e firmava un tractato con Germania, su traditional adversario in le guerra, pro comenciar iste processo de integration. Le General De Gaulle, le promotor principal de iste nove politica, ordenava que le Statos Unite retirava su bases militar del territorio francese, accusava Britannia de esser un vassallo del Statos Unite, e establiva relationes diplomatic con le China communiste.

In 1956 (mille nove centos cinquanta e sex) Polonia e Hungria intentava rebelliones contra le Union Sovietic, ma le armea de Russia esseva assatis forte pro supprimer los. Le politicas del governamentos communiste de Albania e China deveniva fundamentalmente differente de illos del Union Sovietic. In 1968 (mille nove centos sexanta e octo) Chechoslovachia anque fomentava un rebellion contra le Union Sovietic. Pro impedir lo, le armea sovietic debeva invader Praga con tanks.

In 1990 (mille nove centos novanta) occurreva un profunde transformation politic in le est de Europa. Le fortia del communismo in le major paises del Europa oriental collabeva assatis rapidemente, e iste paises inaugurava governamentos democratic multipartiste. Le governamento communiste de Walter Ulbricht del Republica Popular de Germania collabeva e Germania se reunificava.

Mikhail Gorbachev, recognoscente que le economia del Union Sovietic non poteva continuar le competition de armas con le Statos Unite, lo abandonava. Ille anque essayava restructurar le systema politic del Union Sovietic e inaugurava un politica de libertate de expression (glasnost), que resultava in le disintegration del Union Sovietic e le establimento de un confederation inter le previe republicas sovietic, comenciante un nove epocha in le historia del mundo.

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The New Era After 1945:

The Second World War had produced profound technical, social, and political changes throughout the entire world. Competition among the adversaries in the war had accelerated the development of technology in an effort to produce more destructive arms.

The need to use airplanes to project military destruction with bombs accelerated the development of larger, faster, more efficient aircraft, including jet planes, which stimulated the inauguration of extensive and efficient systems of air transport.

The war also stimulated the development of computers for rapidly making ballistics calculations, for example, and for automatically aiming cannons and similar arms. These military needs strongly stimulated research into cybernetics and the eventual construction of robots for use in industrial processes.

When the horrors of the Nazi concentration camps were revealed completely to the world, humanity also lost its confidence in its moral superiority. The destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan established that the development of technology--which up to the First World War symbolized the progress of civilization and the rational perfectibility of humanity--revealed that the Human race was made up of animals easily capable of diabolical destruction, which, with new technology, could even destroy all human civilizations and a large part of life on our planet.

International politics also had changed drastically. If the first and second world wars were caused by nationalistic interests and ambitions, after 1945 (nineteen forty-five) the most important political unit became blocs of nations and economic interests of different types.

International corporations emerged that were able to build their factories in countries where the taxes and labor expenses were lower, and in pursuing their interests they now could construct their own systems of alliances and even defy the sovereignty of the different countries in which they conducted their activities.

The end of the Twentieth Century saw the emergence of a coherent system of an instantaneous international electronic communications system that started to erode local and national cultures, and mankind still does not know if it will be possible to control the accelerating evolution of new technology or if it will develop its own momentum that will control the future evolution of humanity.

The Years Immediately After the Second World War:

Since the Russians and the Americans emerged as the principal victors of the Second World War, they started a process of mutual competition after the war to increase their access to the natural resources of the planet.

This competition included the capture and control of client states, and both countries had their own ideologies that they used to maintain their populations in ignorance of the true goals of their policies, which, if directly explained, would involve the justification of theft and torture.

But even these countries did not want to see a repetition of the destruction of the first and second world wars, and with a little difficulty they cooperated in the formation of another league of nations. In 1945 (nineteen forty-five) in a conference in San Francisco, California, most of the independent countries of the world signed the charter that established the United Nations, which would be based on these principles:

(1) Sovereign equality of all members of the organization;

(2) The solution of international conflicts through peaceful means;

(3) Prohibiting intervention in the interior affairs of each state;

(4) Pressure on the states that had not joined the United Nations to preserve international peace and security;

(5) Refusal to support countries formally sanctioned by the United Nations;

(6) An obligation to preserve the principles of the charter by the members of the United Nations.

The United Nations hoped that it would be able to avoid the failures of the League of Nations by

(1) Promoting friendly relations among all nations;

(2) Accomplishing international cooperation in international problems of an economic, social, cultural or humanitarian nature;

(3) Establishing respect for the fundamental rights and liberties for the entire human race;

(4) Serving as a center that would harmonize efforts for accomplishing the previously stated common objectives.

Though its pacifying activities have taken various forms, generally the United Nations has not been able to solve the large-scale international conflicts of the second half of the Twentieth Century because it lacks its own military forces that could overcome the national forces of its members, and its pacification programs have had to limit themselves principally to informative and persuasive activities.

The prohibition against intervening in the interior affairs of its members has also had a paralyzing effect on many of the United Nations' important decisions. The superpowers can also veto United Nations resolutions that go against their national interests, and this mechanism allows them to suppress the interests of the smaller and less powerful members of the UN.

The United Nations was not able to keep the United Sates and the Soviet Union from starting a cold war characterized by growing tension that easily could have resulted in a new atomic war. The two countries began a program of constructing arsenals of bombers and nuclear fission bombs that later on would become missiles and fusion bombs with explosive capabilities that could annihilate most of the life on our planet. These two arsenals were almost equal in their destructive capabilities and produced a balance of terror between both powers.

The United States and the Soviet Union along with their allies produced a world divided into two blocs. The western bloc consisted of the United States and the countries surrounding the ocean (North America and Western Europe). The eastern bloc, geographically more unified, consisted of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

Both blocs were similar in their area and population, but the eastern bloc had slightly more people. The United States and the Soviet Union also became the most powerful economic powers. Up to 1950 (nineteen fifty), the rate of production of the United States was 75% (seventy-five percent) of world production.

In 1947 (nineteen forty-seven) the United States president, Harry S. Truman, inauguated the Truman Doctrine, which consisted of supporting, in the form of monetary credits and armaments, other governments that fought communism.

The American secretary of state, George C. Marshall, established a program of "fraternal assistance" at the Paris Peace Conference of 1947 (nineteen forty-seven). According to this program, the United States would furnish the capital needed to rebuild the economic infrastructure that the countries of Western Europe had lost during the Second World War.

At the end of this porgram, the United States had paid about 13,000,000,000 (thirteen billion) dollars to the principal beneficiaries of the program: England, France, Italy, and Germany. The goal of the Marshall plan was to strengthen these countries so that they would not fall into the Soviet orbit.

The Soviet Union responded with the creation of the Kominform (Communist Information Bureau), which integrated the countries under its influence. The division between the two big blocs became more radical, and an "Iron Curtain," according to the expression of Winston Churchill, frustrated all hopes for a peaceful accord between the two blocs.

The United States then established the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a military alliance that integrated all the countries of Western Europe. The Russians responded with the Warsaw Pact, which organized in a similar way the countries they controlled.

Toward 1956 (nineteen fifty-six) this crisis entered into a period of relaxation initiated by Nikita Khrushchev (1953 1964 [from nineteen fifty-three to nineteen sixty-four]), who recognized that certain compromises were necessary to reduce the possibility of a thermonuclear war between the Russians and the Americans, recognized by everyone as a truly realistic menace to the life of all humanity.

The policy of peaceful coexistence inaugurated by Khrushchev did not eliminate all conflicts between the two blocs. The Soviet Union built a wall in Berlin in 1961 (nineteen sixty-one) to separate physically Eastern and Western Germany. The United States replaced France in the war in Vietnam, in which the Russians tried to establish a client state in the north and the Americans, in the south.

In Cuba the Soviets installed missile bases, which almost provoked a nuclear war with the United States. Khrushchev yielded to the demands of the American president, John F. Kennedy. His prestige in the Soviet Union then diminished, and the power of his political rivals grew, eventually driving him from office.

During these years, the United States and the Soviet Union carefully evaluated each other's war capabilities, avoiding the possibility that either of the two collossi would gain a decisive military advantage over the other. (By 1952 [nineteen fifty-two] the United States had constructed the first nuclear-fusion bomb [from hydrogen to helium], and a year later the Russians constructed one of their own.)

The United States and the Soviet Union then inaugurated programs to construct satellites, atomic submarines, and missiles with multiple nuclear warheads in a continuing effort to assure even more strongly their mutual capacity for total annihilation in case of war.

The English, the French, and the Chinese also inaugurated their own programs to develop nuclear arms, but these countries did not have the economic resources to equal the American and Soviet arsenals.

Many people in the United States and the Soviet Union understood that a war between them would result in a gigantic ecological change on the planet that probably would mean the extinction of the human race. They started a campaign to limit their nuclear arsenals that eventually produced modest results after the Treaty of Moscow of 1963 (nineteen sixty-three) and others in Geneva, Helsinki, and Vienna. The modesty of these results was caused by the lack of confidence between the two countries and their frequent violation of former agreements.

Between 1950 (nineteen fifty) and 1980 (nineteen eighty) the blocs dominated by the United States and the Soviet Union started to lose their homogeneity. The process was slow, and it did not become very obvious before the second part of the decade between 1960 and 1970.

In the western world, France encouraged a united Europe and signed a treaty with Germany, its traditional adversary in war, to start this process of integration. General De Gaulle, the principal promoter of this new policy, ordered the United States to remove its military bases from French territory, accused Britain of being a vassal of the United States, and established diplomatic relations with Communist China.

In 1956 (nineteen fifty six) Poland and Hungary tried to rebel against the Soviet Union, but the Russian army was strong enough to suppress them. The policies of the communist government of Albania and China became fundamentally different from the Soviet Union's. In 1968 (nineteen sixty-eight) Czechoslovachia also started a rebellion against the Soviet Union. To stop it, the Soviet Army had to invade Prague with tanks.

In 1990 (nineteen ninety) a profound political transformation took place in Eastern Europe. The strength of communism in most of the countries of Eastern Europe collapsed rather rapidly, and these countries inaugurated multiparty democratic governments. The communist overnment of Walter Ulbricht of the People's Republic of Germany collapsed, and Germany reunified.

Mikhail Gorbachev, recognizing that the economy of the Soviet Union could not continue the arms race with the United States, abandoned it. He also tried to restructure the political system of the Soviet Union and inaugurated a policy of freedom of expression (glasnost), which resulted in the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the establishment of a confederation among the former Soviet republics, starting a new epoch in the history of the world.

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