Saturday, January 17, 2009

Historia del seculo vinti, Parte 7


(Languages of this post: Interlingua, English)


Le fascismo in Italia:

Post le Prime Guerra Mundial le italianos se sentiva decipite a causa del pauco abundante compensation offerite a illes per le tractatos de Paris post le defaite del germanos. Difficultates economic anque affligeva le italianos. Le forte depreciation de lor moneta, con su consequente e rapide augmento de precios, provocava un varietate de disordines public, inter illos exoperos laboral, que sovente interrumpeva lor production agricole.

Iste situation promoveva un forte movimento verso le fascismo in Italia. Como le fascismo de Germania, illo de Italia habeva un forte base nationalistic (le italianos voleva facer reviver le annos de splendor e gloria del Imperio Roman), e le proprietarios industrial italian ric videva in le fascismo le salvation de lor interesses economic menaciate per movimentos popular inspirate per philosophias socialistic.

Italia anque non habeva un forte tradition democratic--le suffragio universal se habeva establite solmente un anno ante le guerra--e le classes regente italian non habeva le patientia requirite pro defender lor interesses in le ambiente politic de un monarchia parliamentari.

Le Revolution Russe esseva multo recente (1917 [mille nove centos dece septe]), e le Partito Socialiste Italian, que esseva fortemente inspirate per illo, cresceva con un rhythmo preoccupante. Le fascistas usava multo habilemente le sentimento de timor de un revolution socialistic imminente pro ganiar le appoio del classes regente. Le sector le plus prospere del classe medie non habeva sympathia pro le movimento laboral e credeva que le fascistas les offereva opportunitates substantial pro meliorar lor position economic e social.

Le fascistas anque trovava un fonte fertile de recrutamento inter personas del classe medie basse, qui ascoltava lor rhetorica nationaliste sur le gloria de Italia e del Imperio Roman, que illes promitteva facer reviver in un nove forma que convenirea al seculo vinti.

Le militares blasmava le socialistas pro lor fiascos durante le Prime Guerra Mundial. Secundo illes, le doctrina socialiste que manteneva que le capitalismo causava le guerra habeva influentiate le comportamento del soldatos italian durante le guerra. Le fascistas appoiava iste puncto de vista e facilemente recruitava a lor causa le fortias militar italian, que les adjuvava in lor programmas de terrorismo.

In 1922 (mille nove centos vinti e duo) le fascistas organisava un marcha a Roma. Unes 26.000 homines armate participava in iste evento, e le rege italian, Vittore Manuele III, dava le presidentia del governamento italian a Mussolini, ben que le fortias militar que protegeva Roma forsan poterea haber prevalite contra le "camisas nigre" fascistic.

Durante su regime, Mussolini supprimeva le derectos human garantite per le constitution italian, includente le libertate de pressa, le libertate de viver in ulle parte del pais, e le libertate de association. Le parlamento in le practica deveniva un choro de approbation pro le programmas fasciste, e le judices del systema legal perdeva lor independentia. Tribunales politic condemnava quasi 5.000 (cinque mille) personas de subversion contra le governamento. Quasi 10.000 (dece mille) personas esseva deportate, e 3.000 (tres mille) eligeva le exilio.

In le prime phase de su dictatura, Mussolini fingeva preservar unes institutiones democratic. Ille anque convocava (e manipulava) le elections de 1924 (mille nove centos vinti e quatro). Post illos, 406 (quatro centos sex) fascistas ganiava positiones in le parlamento italian contra 129 (cento vinti e nove) membros del opposition.

In 1925 Mussolini supprimeva omne le partitos que opponeva le fascistas. Postea, ille e su ministros non habeva le besonio de justificar lor actiones ante le parlamento. Le fascistas debeva responder ante le rege italian, ma ille non voleva asserer su derectos soveran.

In 1926 Mussolini poteva governar Italia per decretos sin le necessitate de consultar con le parlamento e, como Julio Cesare, se proclamava le Duce de Italia (dux, ducis, duce, ducem ... in Latino). Ille promulgava un nove lege prohibente le critica del governamento per le pressa, establiva un apparato policiari pro assecurar que omne le population de Italia applaudeva le politicas fascistic, e in 1927 (mille nove centos vinti e septe) establiva un sindicato laboral fasciste que prohibeva exoperos laboral.

Con le scoppo de perpetuar su systema, Mussolini creava in 1928 (mille nove centos vinti e octo) le Grande Consilio Fasciste, e in 1929 (mille noventos vinti e nove) ille convocava electiones, le quales presentava ante le electorato solmente candidatos fascistic.

Le economia italian durante iste epocha functionava sub un systema autarchic e protectioniste, que se intensificava post le depression de 1929 (mille nove centos vinti e nove). Le intervention statal controlava practicamente omne le sectores del production per medio de companias strictemente controlate e monopolios statal administrate per le Instituto de Reconstruction Industrial.

In su politica exterior, Mussolini voleva recuperar le zonas que habeva pertinite al Imperio Roman, e in 1935 (mille nove centos trenta e cinque) ille invadeva Abysinnia (nunc Ethiopia). Le Societate de Nationes non poteva intervenir effectivemente in iste invasion.

Como le fascistas italian e le nationalsocialistas german habeva quasi le mesme philosophia politic e economic, Hitler e Mussolini establiva un alliantia, le Axe Roma-Berlin (ben que durante ille mesme anno Mussolini anque habeva signate con Anglaterra e Francia un pacto contra le politicas de Hitler, repetente le vacillation politic monstrate per Italia durante le Prime Guerra Mundial).

Le consolidation del revolution sovietic:

Le communistas sovietic, post sasir le governamento de Russia, confrontava le problema immense de poner in practica le principios revolutionari socialiste in un pais de tan enorme extension geographic. Pro illes il esseva multo difficile controlar un collection de numerose nationalitates, racias, e religiones. Le governamento sovietic debeva luctar contra le resistentia de milles de paisanos (qui non voleva collectivisar lor terras agricole) e contra possibile rebelliones de su populationes urban, qui sovente non habeva bastante alimentos pro superviver.

Le Armea Blanc, commandate per generales czariste, manteneva su resistentia, specialmente in Ucrania, Siberia, e Murmansk, al norte del pais. Illes anque habeva le appoio del franceses, angleses, e statouniteses, qui timeva le triumpho del communismo. Iste paises anque esseva discontente proque le nove governamento sovietic non recognosceva le debitos de guerra del governamento czariste. Le checos anque participava in iste movimento de resistentia militar con le franceses, angleses, e americanos.

In le autumno de 1919 (mille nove centos dece e nove) le Armea Rubie, dirigite per Leon Trotski, infligeva un colpo decisive contra iste contrarevolutionarios, ben que illes continuava lor resistentia usque 1921 (mille nove centos vinti e un).

Simultaneemente con le guerra civil, le governamento sovietic debeva luctar contra le poloneses pro establir un frontiera stabile inter Russia e Polonia. Iste conflicto terminava in 1921 (mille nove centos vinti e un) quando Polonia cedeva Ucrania e le Russia Blanc al sovieticos. Altere statos russe anque luctava pro le recognoscimento de lor independentia, e Ucrania, Finlandia, e le Paises Baltic habeva successo in iste effortio.

Nonobstante, le menacia le plus grande pro le governamento sovietic non veniva del campos de battalia ma del resistentia de grande sectores de su population. Secundo le principios del marxismo, Lenin habeva dividite le terras agricole del Union Sovietic de un maniera theoricamente equalitari inter omne le campesinos qui laborava sur illos. Ma pro satisfacer le necessitates del population militar, urban, e industrial, le governamento obligava que le campesinos dava al stato omne lor productos agricole, permittente que illes reteneva solmente lor necessitates basic pro superviver.

In su tentativas de eliminar problemas de insurrection inter multe partes de su population, le governamento de Lenin deportava e incarcerava grandissime numeros de personas, ma su effortios non impediva le generalisation del fame in le centros urban de su pais.

Iste periodo del revolution, cognoscite como le Communismo de Guerra (1917-1921 [desde mille nove centos dece septe usque mille dece centos vinti e un]), esseva un periodo de confusion characterisate per le nationalisation del commercio e del industria pesante, per le militarisation del travalio, e per le chaos economic generalisate. Multe sectores del systema de transporte e del industria pesante esseva paralysate a causa del carentia de materias prime, de pecias de recambio pro le machineria industrial, e del personal con le cognoscimentos necesse pro administrar effectivemente le diverse industrias del pais.

Lenin deveni plus flexibile:

Le fame in le citates provocava movimentos fortes de resistentia contra le stato sovietic inter le obreros de Leningrado e le marineros de Kronstadt. Lenin tunc comprendeva que le revolution esseva in periculo e inaugurava su Nove Politica Economic, que permitteva que le agricultores del Union Sovietic vendeva un parte de lor frumento in mercatos libere, permittente le establimento de qualque interprisas private, e stimulante le investimento estranie. Lenin explicava iste politica de "tregua" como "facer un passo a retro pro poter facer duo in avante".

Durante iste periodo de liberalisation economic, le resistentia del poteres occidental europee contra le Union Sovietic diminueva. Russia signava le tractato de Rapallo con Germania e recipeva le recognoscimento de Britannia, Francia, e Italia.

Lenin anque poteva institutionalisar le Revolution Bolchevic per le Constitution de Julio de 1923, que dava al Union Sovietic un structura federal e concedeva a su republicas componente le derecto de separar se del Union. Iste constitution anque garantiva un serie de derectos al citatanos sovietic a condition que illes non opponeva le objectivos revolutionari "supreme" del pais. In 1934 Russia anque se univa al Societate de Nationes.

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Fascism in Italy:

After the First World War the Italians felt let down because they were offered so little by the treaties of Paris after the defeat of the Germans. Economic difficulties also afflicted the Italians. The heavy depreciation of their money, which led to rapid price increases, provoked a variety of public disorders, among them strikes that often interrupted their agricultural production.

This situation promoted a strong movement toward fascism in Italy. Like Germany's fascism, Italy's had a strong nationalistic basis (the Italians wanted to revive the years of splendor and the glory of the Roman Empire), and wealthy Italian industrial proprietors saw in Fascism the salvation of their economic interests, which were threatened by popular movements inspired by socialistic philosophies.

Italy also did not have a strong democratic tradition--universal suffrage had been established only a year before the war--and the Italian ruling classes did not have the patience needed to defend their interests in the political environment of a constitutional monarchy.

The Russian Revolution was very recent (1917 [nineteen seventeen]), and the Italian Socialist Party, which was heavily inspired by it, grew at a worrisome rate. The fascists very skillfully used feelings of fear of an imminent socialist revolution to win the support of the ruling classes. The most prosperous sector of the middle class did not have any sympathy for the labor movement and believed that the fascists offered them substantial opportunities to improve their economic and social position.

The fascists also found a fertile source of recruits among people in the lower middle class, who listened to their nationalistic rhetoric on the glory of Italy and the Roman Empire, which they promised to revive in a new form that would be appropriate to the Twentieth Century.

The military blamed the Socialists for their failures during the First World War. According to them, the socialistic doctrine that maintained that capitalism caused the war had influenced the behavior of Italian soldiers during the war. The fascists supported this point of view and easily recruited Italian military forces to their cause--which helped them in their programs of terrorism.

In 1922 (nineteen twenty-two) the fascists organized a march to Rome. Some 26,000 armed men participated in this event, and the Italian king, Vittore Manuele III, gave the presidency of the Italian government to Mussolini, though the military forces that protected Rome could possibly have prevailed against the fascist "black shirts."

During his regime, Mussolini suppressed the human rights guaranteed by the Italian constitution, including the freedom of the press, the freedom to live anywhere in the country, and the freedom of association. The parliament in practice became a rubber stamp for the fascist programs, and the judges of the legal system lost their independence. Politicized courts condemned almost 5,000 (five thousand) people of subversion against the government. Almost 10,000 (ten thousand) people were deported, and 3,000 (three thousand) decided to go into exile.

In the first phase of his dictatorship, Mussolini gave lip service to preserving some democratic institutions. He also called for (and manipulated) elections in 1924 (nineteen twenty-four). After they were over, 406 (four hundred six) fascists gained seats in the Italian parliament, which had only 129 (one hundred twenty-nine) opposition members.

In 1925 Mussolini suppressed all the parties that opposed the fascists. Afterwards, he and his ministers did not have any need to justify their actions before the parliament. The fascists answered to the Italian king, but he did not want to assert his sovereign rights.

In 1926 Mussolini was able to govern Italy through decrees without the need to consult parliament and, like Julius Caesar, proclaimed himself the Duce of Italy (dux, ducis, duce, ducem ... in Latin). He promulgated a new law forbidding criticism of the government by the press, established a police apparatus assuring that the entire population of Italy would applaud fascist policies, and in 1927 (nineteen twenty-seven) established a fascist labor union that outlawed labor strikes.

With the goal of perpetuating his system, Mussolini created in 1929 (nineteen twenty-nine) the Great Fascist Council, and in 1929 (nineteen twenty-nine) he called for elections, which presented only fascist candidates for consideation by the electorate.

The Italian economy during this period functioned under an autarkic and protectionist system, which intensified after the depression of 1929 (nineteen twenty-nine). State intervention controlled practically all the sectors of production through strictly controlled companies and state monopolies administered by the Industrial Construction Institute.

The foreign policy of Mussolini had the goal of recovering the areas that had belonged to the Roman Empire, and in 1935 (nineteen thirty-five) he invaded Abysinnia (now Ethiopia). The League of Nations was not able to intervene effectively in this invasion.

Since the Italian fascists and the German nationalsocialists had almost the same political and economic philosophy, Hitler and Mussolini established an alliance, the Rome-Berlin axis, (though during that same year Mussolini also had signed with England and France a pact against Hitler's policies, repeating the political vacillation shown by Italy during the First World War).

The Consolidation of the Soviet Revolution:

The soviet communists, after seizing the government of Russia, confronted the immense problem of putting into practice revolutionary socialist principles in a country of enormous geographical extension. It was very difficult for them to control a collection of many nationalities, races, and religions. The soviet government had to fight against the resistance of thousands of peasants (who did not want to collectivize their agricultural lands) and against possible rebellions among its urban populations, who often did not have enough food to survive.

The White Army, commanded by czarist generals, maintained its resistance, especially in Ucrania, Siberia, and Murmansk, in the north of the country. They also had the support of the French, English, and Americans, who feared the triuimph of communism. These countries also were unhappy because the new soviet government did not recognize the war debts of the czarist government. The Czechs also participated in this military resistance movement with the French, English, and Americans.

In the fall of 1919, the Red Army, led by Leon Trotski, inflicted a decisive blow against these counterrevolutionaries, though they continued their resistance up to 1921 (nineteen twenty-one).

Along with the civil war, the soviet government had to fight against the Poles to establish a stable frontier between Russia and Poland. This conflict ended in 1921 (nineteen twenty-one), when Poland ceded Ucrania and White Russia to the soviets. Other Russian states also fought for the recognition of their independence, and Ucrania, Finland, and the Baltic countries were successful in this effort.

Nonetheless, the greatest menace threatening the soviet government did not come from the battlefields but from the resistance of large sectors of its population. According to the principles of Marxism, Lenin had divided up the agricultural fields of the Soviet Union in a theoretically equal way among all the peasants who worked them. But to satisfy the needs of the military, urban, and industrial population, the government forced the peasants to give to the state all their agricultural production, allowing them to retain only what they needed for basic survival.

In their attempts to eliminate problems of insurrection among many parts of its population, Lenin's government deported and incarcerated very large numbers of people, but his efforts could not stop the spread of hunger in the urban centers of his country.

This period of the revolution, known as War Communism (1917-1921 [from nineteen seventeen to nineteen twenty-one]), was a period of confusion characterized by the nationalization of commerce and heavy industry, the militarization of labor, and generalized economic chaos. Many sectors of the transport system and heavy industry were paralyzed because of a lack of raw materials, spare parts for industrial machinery, and people with the skills needed to administrate effectively the different industries of the country.

Lenin Becomes More Flexible:

Hunger in the cities provoked strong resistance movements against the soviet state among the workers of Leningrad and the sailors of Kronstadt. Lenin then realized that the revolution was in danger and inaugurated his New Economic Policy, which permitted the farmers of the Soviet Union to sell part of their wheat in free markets, allowing the establishment of some private enterprises, and stimulating foreign investment. Lenin explained this policy of "truce" by saying he was "making a step backward to make two more forward."

During this period of economic liberalization, the resistance the West European powers displayed against the Soviet Union relaxed somewhat. Russia signed the Treaty of Rapallo with Germany and received the recognition of Britain, France, and Italy.

Lenin also was able to institutionalize the Bolshevik Revolution through the July, 1923 (nineteen twenty-three), constitution, which gave the Soviet Union its federal structure and conceded to its component republics the right of secession from the Union. This constitution also guaranteed a series of rights to soviet citizens as long as they did not oppose the "supreme" revolutionary goals of the country. In 1934 (nineteen thirty-four) Russia also joined the League of Nations.

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