Saturday, January 17, 2009

Historia del seculo vinti, Parte 6


(Languages of this post: Interlingua, English)


Le Statos Unite: Racismo, Xenophobia, e le Emergentia del Mafia:

Al fin del Prime Guerra Mundial, le paises europee habeva accumultate un debito de $18.000.000.000 (dece octo billiones) de francos auro al Statos Unite, que habeva comenciate su participation in le ultime parte del guerra solmente post que Francia, Anglaterra, e Russia habeva debilitate le fortias militar del germanos e del austriacos.

Cognoscente ben iste position de privilegio, le congresso del Statos Unite, controlate per le conservativos del Partito Republican, inaugurava un politica de forte disveloppamento economic domestic, de isolationismo international, e de un fortissime nationalismo combinate con xenophobia, cognoscite orgoliosemente como americanismo.

In 1919, le senato statounitese lassava sin ratification le Tractato de Versailles e le incorporation del Statos Unite in le Societate de Nationes. Vidente le forte rejection de su politica international, Woodrow Wilson non se presentava como candidato in le electiones de 1920 (mille nove centos vinti), e le Republicanos controlava le pais usque 1932 (mille nove centos trenta e duo).

Le isolationismo statounitese se manifestava economicamente con le protection del industria american per le elevation de su tarifas doanal e le restriction del immigration ex paises con grande numeros de disoccupatos--specialmente le paises noneuropee.

Le nationalismo e xenophobia american promoveva un forte intolerantia racial e religiose que se manifestava specialmente in organisationes como le American Legion e le Ku Klux Klan, le quales, de un maniera reminiscente del Nazis, terrorisava stranieros, americanos de origine african, catholocos, e judeos.

Le christianismo protestante american habeva assatis potentia politic pro illegalisar le consumption de bibitas alcoholic in le Statos Unite, creante un mercato illegal pro illos e establiente le mafia italian como un forte factor politic e economic in le societate american.

Le annos inter 1921 e 1929 marcava un epocha de prosperitate economic in le economia american proque

(1) Un systema de pagamentos mensual permitteva que un grande numero de americanos poteva comprar un varietate de productos, specialmente automobiles e apparatos electrodomestic;

(2) Le grande corporationes american apprendeva le uso de technicos sophisticate de publicitate pro stimular le demanda pro lor automobiles (Ford, General Motors, Chrysler), radios (Radio Corporation of America), e apparatos electrodomestic (General Electric, Westinghouse);

(3) Nove technicas de construction reduceva le precio del allogiamento in centros urban como New York, Chicago, e Los Angeles.

Durante iste epocha de prosperitate, le Statos Unite possedeva 40% (quaranta pro cento) del reservas mundial de auro, e su ricchessa national esseva multo superior a illo de ulle pais europee, producente un optimismo e mesmo un euphoria national generalisate. Le americanismo pareva haber assecurate le prosperitate economic perpetue pro le major parte del population statounitese, ma iste optimismo terminava abruptemente le 24 de octobre 1929 con le collapso del mercato de valores de New York.

In 1933 le populo american, disincantate con le fiasco financiari identificate con le succession de administrationes del Partito Republican, eligeva un Democrata, Franklin Roosevelt, al presidentia del Statos Unite. Ille comenciava un nove programma aggressive de reformas economic collectivemente identificate in anglese como le New Deal.

Le provisiones del New Deal, planificate per un gruppo de economicos e sociologos american de grande prestigio academic, affectava omne partes del systema productive del economia american e representava le prime effortio de planification economic per le governamento federal american, que antea habeva adherite plus rigorosemente al principios de laissez faire, describite per Adam Smith in "The Wealth of Nations" (Le ricchessa del nationes).

Pro le Statos Unite iste theorias capitalistic cognoscite a americanos como "the free enterprise system (Le systema de interprisa libere) es un del ingredientes principal del mythologia national del Statos Unite, como le marxismo, leninismo, e stalinismo esseva pro le Union Sovietic.

Le governamento de Roosevelt interveniva in omne le facetas del economia (investimentos, creditos, regulation del mercato financiari, regulation del production in le fabricas american, planification del production agricultural, includente le protection del precios e subsidios pro productos exportate).

Le New Deal habeva successos importante, como le augmento de salarios e le reduction del septimana de labor a 40 horas. Ma desde 1936 (mille nove centos trenta e sex), le New Deal incontrava problemas quando le Corte Supreme del Statos Unite declarava inconstitutional unes de su programas.

Le isolationismo american continuava con minime cambios usque 1937 (mille nove centos e septe), quando Roosevelt comenciava a preoccupar se per le securitate statounitese a causa del expansionismo german e japonese.

In un discurso presentate in Chicago, ille usava le metaphora de un quarantena pro describer iste nove disveloppamentos in le balantia de potentia mundial quando ille diceva "Le pace, le libertate, e le securitate del noventa pro cento del mundo se trova in periculo proque le dece pro cento restante menacia le ruptura del ordine e del derecto. Quando un epidemia comencia a extender se, un communitate approba que on pone le malades in quarantena." Iste discurso annunciava que le Statos Unite devenirea active de novo in le politica international.

Le emergentia del fascismo in Germania:

Le evolution del fascismo in Germania comenciava con le vincimento decisive del germanos al fin del Prime Guerra Mundial, con le crise economic imponite sur le pais per le Tractato de Versailles, e con le perdita complete per Germania de su prestigio international.

Post le abdication de Wilhelm II in Novembre, 1918, Friedrich Ebert deveniva le cancellero de Germania. Ebert esseva un membro del Partito Socialdemocrate, marxiste in theoria ma moderatemente reformiste in le practica. Ille debeva confrontar problemas de manifestationes contra le governamento e respondeva con un repression dur, que resultava in le massacro de obreros revolutionari, inter illes Rosa Luxemburg e Karl Liebknecht.

In februario le governamento convocava electiones general pro formar un assamblea consitutente. Durante iste electiones 46% (quaranta sex pro cento) del populo votava pro le Partito del Centro e le Socialdemocratas, le quales formava un coalition proclamante le Republica de Weimar e elaborante un constitution confuse e contradictori.

On seligeva Ebert como presidente e Scheidmann como cancellero del republica. Desde su prime dies le nove republica german debeva confrontar grave problemas interne, includente le consequentias del repression del sectores del population opprimite durante le prime administration de Ebert, assassinationes politic, e insurrectiones per le partitos communiste e nationalsocialiste.

In iste periodo de confusion social, Hitler essayava sasir le governamento in 1923 (mille novecentos vinti e tres) per medio de un colpo in Munich, que faceva fiasco e le portava al carcere.

A causa de lor incapacitate pro pagar lor debitos a Francia secundo le Tractato de Versailles, le germanos debeva acceptar le occupation del Ruhr per truppas franco-belge. Iste occupation provocava un forte nationalismo inter le germanos, qui montava forte demonstrationes patriotic.

Intertanto, le economia se debilitava fortemente con le hyperinflation del marco. In 1923 le taxa de cambio inter le marco e le dollar esseva un dollar pro 84 (octanta e quatro) marcos. In 1923 le taxa esseva un dollar pro 4.200.000.000 (quatro milliardos duo cento milliones) marcos.

In 1924 (mille nove centos vinti e quatro) le marco se stabilisava con le normalisation del pagamentos pro reparationes de guerra, le evacuation del truppas francobelge del Ruhr, e le admission de Germania a in le Societate de Nationes.

Ben que le production industrial german eventualmente se habeva stabilisate, illo falleva post le crise economic american, que comenciava in 1929 (mille nove centos vinti e nove) proque un grande parte del production industrial german dependeva del fortia del economia american.

Omne iste tumulto fortificava le position del Partito Nationalsocialiste de Hitler, qui usava omne opportunitates presentate per iste crises economic e social pro su proprie avantage politic.

Le Nazis combinava le violentia in le stratas con le propaganda politic e le lucto parlamentari. In 1932 (mille nove centos trenta e duo) illes habeva devenite le partito politic le plus potente de Germania, ben que le partisanos de Hitler non habeva un majoritate que le permitterea governar le pais.

Intertanto tamen le Nazis fortificava le partes de su partito quasi militar, le SS (Schutzstaffel, o esquadron de protection) e le SA (Sturmabteilung, o section de assalto), que in 1932 habeva bastante personal pro devenir un ver fortia militar.

Le capitalistas german decideva que Hitler esseva le persona le plus capace de controlar le disordine social del pais e agglutinar le germanos pro superar lor defaite al fin del Prime Guerra Mundial e reganiar de novo le hegemonia de Carlomagno e de Bismarck sur le altere paises de Europa.

Le vision politic principal de Hitler esseva le establimento de un "dritte Reich" o tertie imperio (le prime esseva illo de Carlomagno, le secunde illo de Bismarck), que superarea le corruption e le barbarie que, secundo ille, characterisava le democracias liberal e le stato socialistic sovietic.

Addite a iste philosophia politic esseva le exaltation del racia german, que, secundo Hitler, incarnava le virtutes aryan del tribos germanic que conqueriva le Imperio Roman--e anque un odio verso le judeos, qui, secundo le Nazis, habeva sasite le cultura e le poter economic de Germania e robate le aryanos de omne lor richessas.

In le electiones de julio, 1932 (mille nove centos trenta e duo), 37% (trenta e septe pro cento) del electorate votava pro le Nazis, e le 30 (trenta) de januario, 1933 (mille nove centos trenta e tres), le presidente Hindenburg, un militar dextriste extreme, passava le direction del governamento german a Hitler, qui immediatemente comenciava un plan pro imponer sur le population german un dictatura ferree.

Le 20 de februario, le Reichstag (parlamento) esseva comburite in un incendio planificate per le Nazis, qui blasmava le communistas pro causar lo. Con iste pretexto Hitler suspendeva le function legislative del parlamento e le garantias politic del constitution german, imponente un governamento centralisate que ille controlava directemente con commissarios politic in cata region del pais.

In martio, 1933, per medio de electiones manipulate per le Ministerio del Interior german, le Nazis reoperiva le Reichstag con un majoritate absolute del Partito Nazi, que dava a Hitler le controlo personal e absolute de Germania.

Pro consolidar su controlo del pais, Hitler establiva un Ministerio de Propaganda, dirigite per Josef Goebbels, e tunc inaugurava un programma sophisticate pro manipular le opinion public.

Ante le dissidentia de membros del SA, qui resisteva qualque partes de su programmas revolutionari radical, Hitler commandava que le SS e le Gestapo liquidava le SA e establiva le campos de concentration de Dachau e Buchenwald, cuje prime prisioneros esseva le SA e altere dissidentes contra le nationalsocialismo.

Le apparato policiari e propagandistic del Führer (commandante) expandeva a proportiones gigantic. Su scoppo principal esseva facer conformar le populo german al philosophia del Nazis, que includeva le pan-germanismo, le superioritate racial del racia blanc aryan, e le inferioritate racial del judeos, cuje extermination Hitler comenciava con un apparato de campos de concentration con camaras de gas e crematorios.

Le programma economic del Nazis preservava le possession private del medios de production, ma le planification del production esseva sub le controlo autocratic feree del stato. Pro rearmar su pais, Hitler reactivava le fabricas de armas e material bellic german, seligente le production de cannones in vice de butyro.

Pro controlar luctos inter le classes social, le Nazis anque obligava que le obreros e le capitalistas conduceva lor activitates secundo normas establite per le governamento central. Hitler anque stimulava le production agricole e le construction de allogiamento e obras public, specialmente un systema de autopistas de alte velocitate.

Pro financiar le nove systema economic, le Nazis debeva congelar salarios, rationar numerose alimentos, diminuer le beneficios economic al interprisas industrial e commercial, e imponer nove impostos, le quales non sufficeva pro pagar le debitos del germanos a Francia.

Le politica exterior de Hitler esseva le annulation unilateral del tractato de Versailles e le uso de aggression militar pro annexar altere paises e acquirer nove territorios pro le germanos.

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The United States: Racism, Xenophobia, and the Emergence of the Mafia:

At the end of the First World War, the European countries owed a debt of $18,000,000,000 (eighteen billion) gold francs to the United States, which had started its participation in the war only after France, England, and Russia had weakened the military forces of the Germans and the Austrians.

Well aware of this privileged position, the Untied States Congress, controlled by the conservatives of the Republican party, inaugurated a policy of heavy domestic economic development, of international isolationism, and of a very strong nationalism, pridefully called Americanism.

In 1919, the United States Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and the incorporation of the United States into the League of Nations. Faced with strong rejection of his international policies, Woodrow Wilson did not run for re-election in 1920, and the Republicans controlled the country up to 1932 (nineteen thirty-two).

American isolationism revealed itself economically in the protection of American industry through higher tariffs and immigration restrictions from countries with large numbers of unemployed workers, especially non-European countries.

American nationalism and xenophobia promoted a strong racial and religious intolerance displayed especially in organizations like the Ku Klux Klan, which, in a way reminiscent of the Nazis, terrorized foreigners, African Americans, Catholics, and Jews.

American Protestant Christianity had enough political power to make it illegal to drink alcoholic beverages in the United States, creating a black market for them and establishing the Italian Mafia as a strong political and economic factor in American society.

The years between 1921 and 1929 marked a period of economic prosperity in the American economy because

(1) A system of monthly payments allowed a large number of Americans to buy a variety of products, especially automobiles and home appliances;

(2) Large American corporations learned how to use sophisticated advertising techniques to stimulate demands for their automobiles (Ford, General Motors, Chrysler), radios (Radio Corporation of America), and home appliances (General Electric, Westinghouse);

(3) New techniques of construction lowered the price of housing in urban centers like New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles.

During this period of prosperity, the United States possessed 40% (forty percent) of the world's gold reserves, and its national wealth was much higher than any other European country's, producing generalized national feelings of optimism and even euphoria. Americanism seemed to have assured perpetual economic prosperity for most of the American population, but this optimism ended abruptly on October 24, 1929 (October 24th, nineteen twenty-nine), with the collapse of the New York stock market.

In 1933 (nineteen thirty-three), the American people, desenchanted with the financial failure identified with the succession of Republican Party administrations, elected a Democrat, Franklin Roosevelt, to the presidency of the United States. He inaugurated a new and aggressive program of economic reforms collectively identifed as the New Deal.

The provisions of the New Deal, planned by a group of American economists and sociologists of great academic prestige, affected all parts of the productive system of the American economy and represented the first effort at economic planning by the American federal government, which before had adhered more rigorously to the principles of laissez faire, described by Adam Smith in "The Wealth of Nations."

For the United States these capitalistic theories known to Americans as "the free enterprise system" are one of the principal ingredients the national mythology of the United States, the way Marxism, Leninism, and Stalinism were for the Soviet Union.

The Roosevelt administration intervened in all facets of the economy (investments, credit, regulation of the financial market, regulation of production for American factories, agricultural production planning, including price protection and subsidies for exported products).

The New Deal had important successes, such as wage increases and the reduction of the work week to forty hours. But from 1936 (nineteen thirty-six) the New Deal ran into problems when the U.S. Supreme Court declared some of its programs to be inconstitutional.

American isolationism continued with minimal changes up to 1937 (nineteen thirty-seven), when Roosevelt started to get worried about American security because of German and Japanese expansionism.

In a speech given in Chicago, he used the metaphor of a quarantine to describe these new developments in the balance of world power when he said "Peace, liberty, and the security of ninety percent of the world are in danger because the remaining ten percent are a threat to law and order. Whenever an epidemic poses a threat, a community approves putting the sick into quarantine." This speech announced that the United States would once again become active in international politics.

The emergence of fascism in Germany:

The evolution of fascism in Germany started with the decisive defeat of the Germans at the end of the First World War, with the economic crisis imposed on the country by the Treaty of Versailles, and with the complete loss by Germany of its international prestige.

After the abdication of Wilhelm II in November, 1918, Friedrich Ebert became the chancellor of Germany. Ebert was a member of the Social Democrats, Marxist in theory but moderately reformist in practice. He had to confront problems connected with demonstrations against the government and responded with severe repression, which resulted in the massacre of revolutionary workers, among them Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht.

In February the government called for general elections to form a constituent assembly. During these elections 46% (forty-six percent) of the people voted for the Centrists and the Social Democrats, who formed a coalition proclaiming the Weimar Republic and elaborating a confusing and contradictory constitution.

Ebert was selected to be the president, with Scheidmann to be chancellor of the republic. From its first days the new German republic had to confront difficult internal problems, including the consequences of the repression of the opressed sectors of the population by Ebert's first administration, political assassinations, and insurrections by the Communist and National Socialist parties.

In this time of social confusion, Hitler tried to seize the government in 1923 (nineteen twenty-three) by means of a Putsch (coup) in Munich, which failed and resulted in his imprisonment.

Because of their lack of ability to pay off their debts to France stipulated in the Treaty of Versailles, the Germans had to accept the occupation of the Ruhr by Franco-Belgian troops. This occupation provoked a strong nationalism among the Germans, who organized strong patriotic demonstrations.

In the meantime, the economy was strongly weakened by the hyperinflation of the mark. In 1923 (nineteen twenty-three) the exchange rate between the mark and the dollar was one dollar for eighty-four marks. In 1923 the rate was a dollar for 4,200,000,000 (four billion two hundred million) marks.

In 1924 (nineteen twenty-four) the mark became stabilized with the normalization of payments of reparations for the war, the evacuation of Franco-Belgian troops from the Ruhr, and the admission of Germany into the League of Nations.

Though German industrial production had eventually stabilized, it failed with the American depression, which started in 1929 (nineteen twenty-nine), because a great part of German industrial production depended on the strength of the American economy.

All this tumult strengthened the position of Hitler's Nationalsocialistic Party, which used every opportunity presented by these social and economic crises for his own political advantage.

The Nazis combined street violence with political propaganda and parliamentary infighting. In 1932 (nineteen thirty-two) they had become the strongest political party in Germany, though the partisans of Hitler did not have a majority that would allow them to govern the country.

In the meantime, however, the Nazis strengthened the quasimilitary parts of their party, the SS (Schutzstaffel, or protection squad) and the SA (Sturmabteilung, or assault section), which in 1932 had enough people to become a true military force.

German capitalists decided that Hitler was the person most capable of controlling the social disorder of the country and uniting the Germans to overcome their defeat at the end of the First World War and regain once again the hegemony of Charlemagne and Bismarck over the other countries of Europe.

Hitler's principal political vision was to establish a Third Reich or third empire (the first was Charlemagne's, the second Bismarck's), which would overcome the corruption and barbarity which, according to him, characterized the liberal democracies and the Soviet socialist state.

Added to this political philosophy was the exaltation of the German race, which, according to Hitler, was the incarnation of the Aryan virtues of the Germanic tribes that conquered the Roman Empire--and also a hatred against the Jews, who, according to the Nazis, had seized the culture and economic power of Germany and robbed the Aryans of all their wealth.

In the elections of July, 1932 (nineteen thirty-two), 37% (thirty-seven percent) of the electorate voted for the Nazis, and on January 30, 1933 (January the thirtieth, nineteen thirty-three), President Hindenburg, a military man of the extreme right, transferred the leadership of the German government to Hitler, who immediately started a plan to impose an iron dictatorship on the people of Germany.

On February 20 (February the twentieth), the Reichstag (parliament) was set on fire by the Nazis, who blamed the communists for causing it. Under this pretext Hitler suspended the legislative function of the parliament and the political guarantees of the German constitution, imposing a centralized government that he controlled directly through political commissioners in every region of the country.

In March, 1933, by means of elections manipulated by the German interior ministry, the Nazis reopened the Reichstag with an absolute majority of the Nazi Party, which conceded to Hitler the personal and absolute control of Germany.

To consolidate his control of the country, Hitler established a ministry of propaganda, directed by Joseph Goebbels, and then inaugurated a sophisticated program to manipulate political opinion.

Before the dissidence of the members of the SA, who resisted some parts of his radical revolutionary programs, Hitler ordered the liquidation of the SA and established the concentration camps Dachau and Buchenwald, whose first prisoners were the SA and other dissidents against national socialism.

The police and propagandistic apparatus of the Führer (leader) expanded to gigantic proportions. Its principal goal was to force the German populace to conform to the philosophy of the Nazis, which included pan-Germanism, the racial superiority of the white Aryan race--and the racial inferiority of the Jews, whose extermination Hitler started with an apparatus of concentration camps with gas chambers and crematoriums.

The economic program of the Nazis preserved private possession of the means of production, but production planning was under the autocratic control of the state. To rearm his country, Hitler reactivated the German factories producing arms and war materiel, selecting the production of guns over butter.

To control conflicts between the social classes, the Nazis also obligated the workers and capitalists to conduct their affairs according to norms established by the central government. Hitler also stimulated agricultural production and the construction of housing and public works, especially a system of high-speed highways.

To finance the new economic system, the Nazis had to freeze salaries, ration many foods, reduce economic benefits to commercial and industrial enterprises, and impose new taxes, which were not enough to pay the debts of the Germans to France.

The foreign policy of Hitler was the unilateral nullification of the Treaty of Versailles and the use of military aggression to annex other countries and gain new territories for the Germans.

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