Saturday, January 17, 2009

Historia del seculo vinti, Parte 5


(Languages of this post: Interlingua, English)

Le periodo inter le Prime e le Secunde Guerras Mundial:

Durante le secunde decada del seculo vinti, le populos del paises que habeva participate in le Prime Guerra Mundial voleva oblidar le violentia militar que habeva causate tante sufferentia a illes. Pro multe sectores del population, lor conditiones economic gradualmente meliorava usque le puncto que il esseva facile perder se sovente in celebrationes e soirees.

Ma sectores belliciste german e francese menaciava le apparente stabilitate de ille annos. Nonobstante, duo homines, Stressemann de Germania e Briande de Francia, travaliava conjunctemente con bon successo pro mitigar bastante iste hostilitate.

In februario, 1925 (mille nove centos vinti e cinque), Germania inviava un memorandum a Anglaterra, Francia, e Italia le qual proponeva un pacto cuje provision principal esseva le renunciation del violentia militar como medio de resolver problemas diplomatic inter le nationes del mundo. Ecce le resultatos producite per iste conferentia:

(1) Le recognoscimento del governamento german que Alsace e Lorraine esseva francese e que Eupene e Malmedy esseva belge;

(2) Un accordo francese pro studiar le pompte evacuation del area del Rheno de Germania, que Francia habeva occupate pro garantir que le germanos satisfacerea le obligationes imponite sur illes per le tractato de Versailles;

(3) Un maniera plus facile de pagar le reparationes de guerra exigite a Germania secundo le Tractato de Versailles;

(4) Appoio a Germania in su effortios pro affiliar se al Societate de Nationes.

Discussiones sur le frontiera oriental de Germania (con Polonia e Chechoslovachia) lassava iste problema sin solution, e le negotiantes postponeva le problema pro resolution eventual per un tribunal international in le futuro.

Le spirito de Locarno produceva un pacto planificate principalmente per duo diplomates (un francese e un statounitese): le Pacto Briand-Kellog, cuje provision le plus importante esseva le renunciation del guerra como un medio de resolver difficultates inter le paises signatori del pacto, le qual esseva multo popular inter le nationes del mundo, e quasi omnes lo signava.

Un altere passo importante esseva le pacto Young (illo porta le nomine del diplomate american qui esseva le presidente del commission que lo redigeva in 1929), que reduceva e postponeva le reparationes de guerra exigite a Germania. Iste pacto reimplaciava le plan Dawes, un altere initiativa statounitese, que habeva producite resultatos impracticabile.

Le decada de disveloppamento economic:

Al fin del Prime Guerra Mundial, le potentias principal passava trans un periodo critic durante le qual illos convertiva lor economias bellic al production civil. Iste conversion causava un crise economic in 1920 (mil nove centos vinti), que nonobstante esseva assatis breve.

Durante le annos 1923-1924 (inter mille nove centos vinti tres e mille nove centos vinti quatro) un expansion sin precedentes transformava le industria e le commercio international. Su foco principal esseva le economia del Statos Unite, que eventualmente deveniva responsibile pro 42% (quaranta e duo pro cento) del production industrial del mundo.

In Europa, le potentias traditional e Chechoslovachia habeva le taxa de crescimento economic le plus grande.

In Asia, Japon continuava con un successo general su planes de expansion economic.

Le Union Sovietic disveloppava su economia secundo planes centralisate independente, le quales insulava iste pais del economia international dominate per le Statos Unite.

Le expansion economic del paises occidental accelerava a un rhythmo crescente unic in omne le historia mundial. Le demanda pro articulos industrial disveloppate in le seculo vinti (radios, automobiles, refrigeratores) continuava su expansion, e iste productos deveniva accessibile al consumitor general a causa de nove systemas de credito designate pro vender los a crescente numeros de personas.

Ma con iste expansion industrial multe fabricas eventualmente produceva un grande numero de productos que le mercato non poteva absorber, e un crise economic disveloppava quando multes de iste fabricas debeva suspender lor operationes, e le gente qui habeva travaliate in illos non habeva le moneta necesse pro comprar lo que illes habeva producite.

Le crise economic de 1929:

Le 24 de octobre de 1929, un die destinate a passar al historia con le nomine "jovedi nigre", le mercado de valores de New York, post un ascension frenetic que habeva durate unes annos, cadeva precipitatemente. Le panico sasiva le communitate financiari, e le figura diabolic de un forte, tenace, e durabile crise economic levava su capite repulsive. Multe investitores cadeva in le ruina. Un numero assatis grande de illes se suicidava.

Unes investitores, timente que lor actiones esseva plus alte que le valor productive del industria american, comenciava a vender los. Iste timor sasiva un crescente numero de investitores, qui anque voleva vender lor actiones, cuje precios descendeva como un bolla de plumbo, producente un forte depression economic que se prolongarea in le Statos Unite usque le explosion del Secunde Guerra Mundial mesme.

Iste crise affectava altere paises de formas multo disequal. Generalmente, paises como Germania e Anglaterra, que exportava multe productos al Statos Unite e cuje economias dependeva fortemente de creditos american, experientava simile crises economic.

Quando le Statos Unite non poteva inviar dollars a iste paises, le numero de lor transactiones economic international se reduceva fortemente, e illos non habeva altere fontes de moneta pro financiar lor proprie importationes. Illos tunc non poteva cambiar lor moneta imprimite contra auro, e le systema monetari international collabeva.

Con iste collapso general, multe paises reduceva lor importationes in un effortio pro proteger lor proprie industrias, limitante le commercio international, que cadeva a un taxa de 33% (trenta e tres pro cento) inter 1929 e 1932.

Iste depression anque affectava paises cuje economias dependeva del exportation de productos agricole proque illos habeva perdite lor mercatos in le paises industrialisate, le quales non poteva comprar le cereales que illos necessitava, e grande sectores de lor population habeva problemas de fame.

Iste reduction precipitate in le production affectava 30.000.000 (trenta million) individuos, le mitate de illes americanos, e 20% (vinti pro cento) de illes germanos. Iste miseria generalisate causava le eruption de nove currentes politic socialistic e fascistic.

In le Statos Unite, le governamento de Franklin Roosevelt evitava un disastre total pro le classe regente american per concessiones ben calibrate al classes medie. Ma in Germania Hitler usava le crise economic international multo habilemente pro incoragiar le collapso del republica Weimar e sasir le governamento german.

Disveloppamentos sociopolitic in le Europa Occidental e le Statos Unite inter 1920 e le Secunde Guerra Mundial:

In despecto del triumpho sur Germania al fin del Prime Guerra Mundial, le tradition democratic liberal del paises europee passava per un serie de crises.

Alicun paises poteva recuperar lor traditiones liberal post haber concedite a lor ministros executive le autoritate quasi dictatorial, del quales illes habeva besonio pro prosequer le guerra.

In altere paises, le tensiones del guerra eventualmente produceva crescente conflictos inter lor partitos politic que alterava fundamentalmente lor politica national, producente governamentos de coalition que inaugurava programmas sovente incoherente, le quales provocava dubitos sur le viabilitate de lor systemas democratic traditional.

Iste crises incoragiava le emergentia de duo nove currentes politic, le communismo e le fascismo. Pro neutralisar le crescente fortia de iste movimentos socialistic e communistic, le classes ric sovente appoiava movimentos fasciste que promitteva proteger lor interesses economic si illes les concedeva le derecto a establir governamentos totalitari.

Altere paises que habeva ganiate lor independentia a causa del guerra habeva populationes sin traditiones democratic qui habeva impatientia con le inefficacia e incertitude del politica democratic. Iste inexperientia e impatientia sovente produceva regimenes despotic in certe paises del centro e del est de Europa.

Le politica stabile de Anglaterra:

Ben que le convulsiones economic e social affectava omne le paises del Europa occidental, Anglaterra escappava le major parte de illos a causa de su equilibrio politic interne traditional, su position financiari forte, e su bon fortuna de non haber essite invadite durante le guerra.

Ma post le guerra le centro de gravitate financiari moveva de London a New York. Le Statos Unite (e etiam Japon in Asia) dominava un parte grande del mercatos que antea le angleses habeva controlate. Le debito que Anglaterra habeva contrahite con le Statos Unite durante le guerra habeva augmentate a unes 32.000.000.000 (trenta duo milliardos) francos de auro, e le governamento britannic habeva un altere debito public de 196.000.000.000 (cento novanta sex milliardos) francos de auro contrahite durante le guerra.

Le carbon, que habeva essite primordial como fonte de energia durante le seculo dece e nove, jam non habeva su importantia anterior proque le petroleo nunc generava le electricitate usate in le fabricas del mundo. Omne iste factores assecurava que Britannia non recuperarea su hegemonia mundial industrial e financiari.

Le syndicatos del obreros britannic deveniva un factor de crescente importantia in le politica national britannic, e in 1926 (mille nove centos vinti e sex) le sindicatos anglese poteva causar le cessation de omne activitates laboral in un exopero general.

Le imperio britannic anque comenciava su disintegration durante iste periodo. Le angleses habeva perdite lor suprematia naval al Statos Unite; e post le Prime Guerra Mundial, le colonias britannic anque voleva lor proprie independentia como le nove paises europee. In 1926 emergeva le Commonwealth of Nations, un confederation laxe del previe colonias britannic.

Le politica instabile de Francia:

Multe battalias del Prime Guerra Mundial habeva loco in Francia, que habeva perdite multe de su infrastructura physic e economic. Francia anque habeva debitos interior e exterior, specialmente a Anglaterra e al Statos Unite, e le moneta que le franceses recipeva de Germania poteva pagar solmente un parte de iste onere financiari.

Le Tertie Republica Francese:

Durante omne su historia, le Tertie Republica de Francia habeva partitos que advocava omne le partes del spectro politic desde le plus sinistre al plus dextre, ma immediatemente post le guerra nulles ex iste partitos poteva stabilisar le governmento francese. In un periodo de 15 (dece e cinque) menses il habeva cinque cambios de governamento. Le depression economic mundial que comenciava con le crise economic del Statos Unite anque impejorava le instabilitate politic francese.

Un coalition de socialistas, radicales, e communistas ganiava un victoria in le electiones de 1936 (mille nove centos trenta e sex), e Leon Blum, un homine de grande prestigio, habeva le opportunitate de governar Francia. Durante iste periodo le salarios del obreros francese augmentava per un taxa de 15% (dece e cinque pro cento), e lor horas de labor cadeva a 40 (quaranta) per septimana. Ma un devaluation inevitabile del franco e altere problemas economic causava un crise general in Francia, e Blum debeva demitter se.

Ben que emergeva varie gruppos de fascistas francese, nulles ex illos ganiava assatis potentia pro sasir le governamento, e le Tertie Republica durava usque le invasion de Francia per le Nazis durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial.

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The period Between the First and the Second World Wars:

During the second decade of the Twentieth Century, the people in the countries that had participated in the First World War wanted to forget about the violence that had caused them so much suffering. For many sectors of the population, their economic conditions gradually improved to the point where they could easily get lost in partying.

But hawkish German and French sectors menaced the apparent stability of those years. Nevertheless, two men, Stressemann of Germany and Briande of France, worked successfully together to reduce these hostilities somewhat.

In February, 1925, Germany sent a memorandum to England, France, and Italy proposing a pact whose principal provision was the renunciation of military violence as a means of resolving diplomatic problems among the nations of the world. Here are the results produced by this conference:

(1) The recognition by the German government that Alsace and Lorraine were French and that Eupene and Malmedy were Belgian;

(2) A French agreement to study the quick evacuation of the Rhine area of Germany, which France had occupied to guarantee that the Germans would fulfill the obligations imposed on them by the Treaty of Versailles;

(3) An easier way of paying off the war reprations demanded of Germany according to the Treaty of Versailles;

(4) Support for the Germany in its efforts to join the League of Nations.

Discussions on the eastern border of Germany (with Poland and Czechoslovachia) left this problem without a solution, and the negotiators postponed the problem for eventual resolution by an international tribunal in the future.

The spirit of Locarno produced a pact planned principally by two diplomats (one American, the other French): the Kellog Briande pact, whose most important provision was the renunciation of war as a means of solving difficulties among the countries signing the pact, which was very popular among the nations of the world, and almost everyone signed it.

Another important step was the Young pact (it carries the name of the American diplomat who was the chairman of the commision that drafted it in 1929), which reduced and postponed the war reparations levied on Germany. This pact replaced the Dawes plan, another American initiative, which had produced impractical results.

The Decade of Economic Development:

At the end of the First World War, the principal powers went through a critical period as they converted their wartime economies to civilian production. This conversion led to an economic downturn in 1920, which nonetheless was rather brief.

During the years 1923-1924 (between nineteen twenty-three and nineteen twenty-four) an unprecedented expanion transformed international industry and commerce. Its principal focus was the economy of the United States, which eventually became responsible for 42% (forty-two percent) of the industrial production of the world.

In Europe, the traditional powers and Czechoslovachia had the highest economic growth rate.

In Asia, Japan continued its generally successful plans for economic expansion.

The Soviet Union developed its economy according to independent centralized plans, which insulated this country from the international economy dominated by the United States.

The economic expansion of the Western nations accelerated at a growing rhythm that was unique in world history. The demand for industrial articles developed in the Twentieth Century (radios, automobiles, refrigerators) continued its expansion, and these products became accessible to the general consumer because of new systems of credit designed to sell them to growing numbers of people.

But with this industrial expansion many factories eventually produced a large number of products that the market could not absorb, and an economic crisis developed when many of these factories had to suspend their operations, and the people who had worked in them did not have the money necessary to buy what they had produced.

The Economic Crisis of 1929:

On October 24, 1929, a day destined to pass into history with the name "Black Tuesday," the New York stock market, after frantically going up for a few years, suddenly crashed. Panic struck the financial community, and the diabolical figure of a new, tenacious, and durable economic depression raised its repulsive head. Many investors fell into ruin. A rather large number of them committed suicide.

Some investors, fearing that their holdings were overvalued, started to sell them. This fear seized a growing number of investors, who also wanted to sell their holdings, whose prices fell like a lead ball, producing a strong depression that would last in the United States up to the explosion of the Second World War itself.

This crisis affected other countries in highly various ways. Generally, countries like Germany and England, which exported many products to the United States and whose economies depended strongly on American credit, experienced similar economic crises.

When the United States was not able to send dollars to these countries, the number of their international economic transactions was strongly reduced, and they did not have other sources of money to finance their own importations. They were then unable to exchange their printed money for gold, and the international monetary system collapsed.

With this general collapse, many countries limited their importations in an effort to protect their own industries, limiting international commerce, which fell by 33% (thirty-three percent) between 1929 (nineteen twenty-nine) and 1932 (nineteen thirty-two).

This depression also affected countries whose economies depended on the exportation of agricultural products because they had lost their markets in the industrialized countries, which could not buy the grain they needed, and great sectors of their population had problems with hunger.

This sudden reduction in production affected 30,000,000 (thirty million) people, half of them Americans, and 20% (twenty percent) of them Germans. This generalized misery gave rise to the eruption of new socialistic and fascistic political currents.

In the United States, Franklin Roosevelt's administration avoided a complete disaster for the American ruling class by well calibrated concessions to the middle classes. But in Germany Hitler used the international economic crisis very skillfully to encourage the collapse of the Weimer Republic and to seize the German government.

Sociopolitical Developments in Western Europe and the United States Between 1920 and the Second World war:

Despite the triumph over Germany at the end of the First World War, the liberal democratic tradition of the European countries went through a series of crises.

Some countries were able to recover their liberal traditions after having conceded to their executive ministers an almost dictatorial authority, which they needed to carry on the war.

In other countries, the tensions of war eventually produced growing conflicts among their political parties that fundamentally altered their national politics, producing coalition governments that inaugurated often incoherent programs, which provoked doubt about the viability of their traditional democratic systems.

These crises encouraged the emergence of two new political currents, communism and fascism. To neutralize the growing strength of these socialistic and communistic movements, the wealthy classes often supported fascist movements that promised to protect their economic interests in return for the right to establish totalitarian governments.

Other countries that had won their independence because of the war had populations without democratic traditions who were impatient with the inefficiency and uncertainty of democratic politics. This inexperience and impatience often produced despotic regimes in certain parts of central and eastern Europe.

Stable Politics in England:

Though economic and social convulsions affected all Western European countries, England escaped most of them because of its traditional internal political equilibrium, its strong financial position, and its good luck for not having been invaded during the war.

But after the war the center of financial gravity moved from London to New York. The United States (and also Japan in Asia) dominated a large part of the markets that the English had formerly controlled. The debt to the United States that England had acquired during the war had increased to some 32,000,000,000 (thirty-two trillion) gold Francs, and the British government had another public debt of 196,000,000,000 (one hundred ninety-six trillion) gold Francs acquired during the war.

Coal, which had been of great importance as a source of energy during the Nineteenth Century, no longer enjoyed its former importance because petroleum now generated the electricity used in the factories of the world. All these factors assured that Britain would not recover its industrial and financial dominance in the world.

British labor unions became a factor of growing importance in British national politics, and in 1926 (nineteen twenty-six) the British unions were able to stop all work in the country with a general strike.

The British Empire also started its disintegration during this period. The English had lost their naval supremacy to the United States; and after the First World War, the British colonies also wanted their own independence like the new European countries. The year 1936 saw the emergence of the Commonwealth of Nations, a loose confederation of the previous British colonies.

The Political Instability of France:

Many battles of the First Worls War took place in France, which had lost much of its physical and economic infrastrucutre. France also had domestic and foreign debts, especially to England and the United States, and the money the French received from Germany could pay only a part of this financial burden.

The Third Republic in France:

During all its history, the French Third Republic had parties advocating the programs of all parts of the political spectrum from the far left to the far right, but immediately after the war none of these parties could stabilize the French government. In a period of fifteen months there were five changes of government. The world economic depression that started with the economic crisis in the United States also worsened French political instability.

A coalition of socialists, radicals, and communists won a victory in the elections of 1936 (nineteen thirty six), and Leon Blum, a man of great prestige, had the opportunity to govern France. During this period the wages of French workers increased fifteen percent, and their hours of work fell to forty a week. But an inevitable devaluation of the Franc and other economic problems caused a general crisis in France, and Blum had to resign.

Though various French fascist groups emerged, none of them won enough power to seize the government, and the Third Republic lasted up to the invasion of France by the Nazis during the Second World War.

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