Monday, January 19, 2009

Historia del seculo vinti, Parte 2


(Languages of this post: Interlingua, English)


Le causas del Prime Guerra Mundial:

Le guerra inter 1914 e 1918 esseva le prime conflicto militar que involveva quasi omne le potentias del mundo. Il es possibile identificar cinque focos de conflicto inter le causas de iste guerra: (1) le rivalitate inter Germania e Francia; (2) tensiones in Morocco inter Germania e Francia, in le qual le angleses appoiava Francia; (3) un crise in le Balcanes inter le imperios russe e austrohungare; (4) le unification de iste paises in duo alliantias grande; e (5) un curso de armas inter le potentias europee.

Omne le paises de Europa voleva lor proprie armas lethal pro "defender" se del altere paises, e interesses economic del fabricantes de iste armas e le salarios que illes dava a lor obreros contribueva temporaneemente al prosperitate economic del major parte del paises europee e anque esseva un forte factor que promoveva le tensiones que inexorabilemente duceva al guerra.

Il es difficile mantener que solmente un o duo de iste cinque problemas causava le guerra, ma conjunctemente illes incoragiava grandemente un explosion bellic final.

Contraponite a iste tendentias verso le guerra tamen esseva certe complimentos international que, infelicemente, non esseva assatis forte pro prevenir le Prime Guerra Mundial.

Le convention de Geneva de 1906 esseva signate per 61 (sexanta e un) paises que se declarava partisanos del pace. Le prime convention de Geneva (1864 [mille octo centos cinquanta e quatro]) assecurava al soldatos ferite le auxilio del Cruce Rubie International, un organisation de character humanitari que le genevese Henri Dunant habeva fundate un anno antea e que habeva un rolo significante in le mitigation del suffrentia de ille guerra incredibilemente destructive.

In 1906 le convention del Haga assecurava le neutralitate del naves hospital e criminalisava le tractamento cruel de prisioneros de guerra.

Le financiero svedese Alfred Nobel, inricchite per le industria de explosivos, establiva le Premio del Pace (1985 mille octo centos octanta cinque), le qual, a causa de recipientes como Henry Kissinger e Yasser Arafat, ha devenite, a vices, un broma ironic. Le americano Andrew Carnegie anque inaugurava le Fundation International del Pace, le qual, infelicemente, non compliva multo ultra le production de certe publicationes que pauches legeva e al quales nemo prestava multe attention. (Sic transit gloria mundi!)

Rivalitate inter Germania e Francia:

Post le guerra inter le germanos e le franceses de 1870, le germanos annexava le territorios de Alsacia e Lorena--un acto que provocava in le franceses forte sentimentos antigerman, e le franceses sperava que con le tempore illes poterea reconquirer los. Le cancillero german Bismarck cognosceva iste intentiones e usava su immense habilitates diplomatic pro neutralisar e isolar Francia.

Durante iste periodo, Anglaterra esseva preoccupate con mantener su grande imperio mundial--un circumstantia que permitteva que Bismarck installava su proprie imperator, Wilhelm I, in le throno de Germania. Postea, con Franz Joseph de Austria e Alexandro II de Russia, ille establiva le "Liga del Tres Imperatores". Iste alliantia se debilitava in 1877 (mille octo centos septanta e septe), e Bismarck forgiava relationes plus forte con Austria, formante le Alliantia Triple. Postea Russia signava un nove tractato con Germania. Iste politica exterior habilissime isolava Francia del altere potentias europee e assecurava que per le momento le franceses non poterea recuperar le territorios de Alsacia e Lorena.

Quando Wilhelm II deveniva le imperator de Germania, ille habeva su proprie ambitiones politic (ma sin le cognoscimentos profunde de Bismarck sur le equilibrio de poter inter le potentias europee). Ille discargava Bismarck in 1890 (mille octo centos novanta). Tunc ille non renovava le tractato inter Germania e Russia, e Francia videva un nove opportunitate pro forgiar un allantia con le czar. Francia e Britannia tunc signava un tractato que, con le alliantia anglo-russe de 1907 (mille nove centos septe), produceva le "Triple Entente" e le fin del isolation diplomatic de Francia que Bismarck habeva preparate con tante habilitate.

Le expansion colonial de Germania:

Wilhelm II non habeva le prudentia de Bismarck, qui cognosceva le periculos de un expansion de Germania ex su territorios europee, e cercava opportunitates pro satisfacer su ambitiones expansioniste. In le guerra inter Japon e China, ille appoiava Japon e postea poteva penetrar China con le japoneses, provocante le irritation de Britannia. In 1902 (mille nove centos dece duo) ille addeva al irritation britannic con le construction del ferrovia de Bagdad.

In 1904 (mille nove centos quatro) Germania laborava pro debilitar le poter del franceses in le norte de Africa. Francia e Espania habeva dividite Morocco inter se, e Wilhelm II disembarcava in Tanger in 1905 (mille nove centos cinque), declarante su appoio al sultan. Nonobstante, post le Conferentia de Algeciras del anno sequente, su planes pro destabiliar le division de Morocco inter le franceses e le espanioles faceva fiasco.

Iste incidente non resolveva le rivalitate marrochin inter le franceses e le germanos. In 1911 (mille nove centos dece e un) emergeva grave problemas de competition inter le companias german e francese que operava in Morocco. In ambe paises le agitation nationaliste se resuscitava quando truppas militar espaniol invadeva Larache. Sub le pretexto de proteger le interesses de su subjectos in iste zona, Wilhelm II inviava le cannonera Panther a Agadir, e le franceses concludeva que probabilemente Germania iva a construer ibi un base naval.

Anglaterra anque timeva le expansion militar de Germania in Africa, e le publico anglese monstrava un forte resentimento verso Germania. Wilhelm II decideva recognoscer le soveranitate de Francia in le Morocco francese post le cession a Germania de certe territorios in Camerun. Iste transaction preservava le pace in iste parte de Africa sin eliminar le rivalitate german e anglo-francese, que sequeva su curso de crescimento.

Le crise de Bosnia:

Durante le conflicto inter le germanos e franceses in Morocco, duo forte imperios, Russia e Austrohungaria, habente designos imperial in le Balcanes, creava un altere foco de tension. Le ambitiones de Russia esseva assecurar se accesso al Mar Nigre, e Austria voleva imponer su soveranitate sur le populos slavic del Balcanes.

Pro cumplir su ambitiones, Russia comenciava le construction de un ferrovia que unirea le Danubio con le mar Adriatic, e Austria comenciava le construction de un altere ferrovia a Salonica. Ambe paises habeva conflictos con le "juvene turcos", qui habeva le ambition de modernisar lor pais.

Russia anque voleva unificar le diverse populos slave, un ambition que confligeva con le desiros de Austria de controlar le populationes slave in le Balcanes. Le responsa de Austria esseva le annexion de Bosnia e Herzegovina, provocante un forte reaction nationaliste, specialmente inter le serbios. Ma in dispecto del appoio russe, le populos slave del Balcanes debeva acceptar lor occupation per Austria a causa del fortia del Alliantia Triple, ma lor postura nationaliste se radicalisava.

Le guerra del Balcanes:

Le Liga Balcanic, cuje membros esseva Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, e Grecia, confrontava e debilitava le imperio turc, causante un grande resentimento inter le turcos, qui habeva perdite Libya e Rhodas a Italia in 1912 (mille nove centos dece duo). Le Liga Balcanic tunc debeva confrontar Bulgaria, que planificava un invasion de Serbia con le adjuta de Russia. Bulgaria capitulava ante Serbia, e le tractato de Bucarest fixava le frontieras inter le duo nationes. Ma le crise balcanic causava un crescente tension inter potentias europee.

Le pace armate:

Germania, Francia, e Russia inaugurava programmas pro augmentar e perfectionar le armamento de lor fortias militar respective, empleante un crescente numero de industrias cuje specialitate esseva le fabrication de material bellic, e augmentante lor budgets destinate al production militar.

Le germanos anque essayava a augmentar lor potentia naval, que causava un grande preoccupation inter le angleses, qui usque tunc habeva un indisputabile hegemonia maritime. In 1905 (mille nove centos cinque) le ministro anglese de Marina, Fisher, habeva recommendate al rege anglese, Edward VII, le annihilation del flota german. Ma le germanos intensificava lor effortios pro augmentar le numero de naves in lor flota como consequentia de un accordo inter Britannia e Francia in 1912 (mille nove centos dece duo).

Le grande periculo de omne cursas de armamentos es que le pais que possede le plus grande fortias militar vole usar los ante lor adversarios decide a usar lor proprie munitiones, reducente le possibilitates de retaliation.

Sex nationes, duo alliantias:

Le ruptura del systema bismarckian dava a Italia nove opportunitates diplomatic, e le italianos se faceva parte del alliantia german e austrohungare, formante le Triple Alliantia in 1882 (mille octo centos octanta e duo). Intertanto le russos se univa al alliantia francobritannic, formante le Triple Entente. Ma plus tarde Italia revaluava su optiones inter ambe alliantias e finalmente interveniva contra su previe alliatos.

Le Prime Guerra Mundial comencia:

Le tension provocante le guerra augmentava rapidissimente e habeva su prime explosion in le Balcanes. Ecce un lista del prime eventos del guerra:

(1) Le archiduce Franz Ferdinand de Austria esseva assassinate in Sarajevo per un bosnian (Bosnia tunc pertineva al Imperio Austrohungare). Austria accusava Serbia de complicitate indirecte in iste evento, transmitteva un ultimatum durissime a Serbia, e declarava le guerra contra Serbia le 18 (dece octo) de julio de 1914 (mille nove centos dece quatro).

(2) Russia habeva annunciate que illo non permitterea un invasion de Serbia e decretava le mobilisation partial contra Austria le 29 (vinti e nove) de julio.

(3) Germania declarava que illo non permitterea le continuation de iste action militar de Russia.

(4) Russia tunc decretava le mobilisation general.

(5) Germania peteva que Francia, un alliato de Russia, manteneva un position de neutralitate.

(6) Francia non accepteva le proposition german e decretava le mobilisation general.

(7) Le 1 de augusto Germania declarava le guerra contra Russia.

(8) Le 2 de augusto Germania exigeva que Belgio permitteva que su fortias militar transversava su territorio pro invader Francia.

(9) Le 3 de augusto Germania declarava le guerra contra Francia.

(10) Anglaterra decideva comenciar su participation in le guerra a causa del violation del neutralitate de Belgio.

(11) Ben que Italia esseva un alliato de Germania e Austria, le italianos declarava lor neutralitate in le prime parte del guerra e postea appoiava le fortias de Francia, Anglaterra, e Russia.

Post declarar le guerra contra Francia, le germanos pensava invader ille pais usante un vetule plan que le general von Schlieffen habeva elaborate in 1905 (mille nove centos cinque) quando ille esseva le planificator militar le plus importante de Germania.

Le Plan Schlieffen consisteva de invader Francia trans Belgio, passante verso le west rapidissimente pro circumferer e assediar Paris.

Le franceses habeva lor Plan XVII, elaborate per le general Joffre in 1911 (mille nove centos dece un), que consisteva de frustrar le invasion al norte de Luxemburgo. Illes establiva un potente linea defensive desde Belfort a Meziers, apud le territorios de Alsacia-Lorena, que illes sperava conquirer immediatemente. A causa de iste strategia, le franceses lassava un brecha de 200 kilometros--desde Meziers usque le mar, que le armea german poteva penetrar sin difficultate.

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The causes of the First World War:

The war betwen 1914 and 1918 was the first military conflict that involved almost all the powers of the world. It is possibile to identify five focal points of conflict among the causes of this war: (1) the rivalry between Germany and France; (2) tensions in Morocco between Germany and France, in which the English supported France; (3) a crisis in the Balkans betwen the Russian and Austrohungarian empires; (4) the unification of these countries into two large alliances; and (5) an arms race among the European powers.

All the countries of Europe wanted their own deadly weapons to "defend" themselves from the other countries, and the economic interests of these arms manufacturers and the salaries that they provided to their workers contributed temporarily to the economic prosperity of most of the European countries and also were a strong factor that promoted the tensions that ultimately led to the war.

It is difficult to maintain that one or two of these problems alone caused the war, but together they greatly encouraged a final explosion into war.

A counterweight against these tendencies toward the war, however, were certain international accomplishments, which, unfortunately, were not strong enough to prevent the First World War.

The 1906 Geneva convention was signed by sixty-one countries that declared themselves partisans of peace. The first Geneva convention (1864 [eighteen sixty-four]) assured injured soldiers of the assistance of the International Red Cross, a humanitarian organization that the Genevan Henry Dunant had founded the year before and which had a significant role in mitigating the suffering of that incredibly destructive war.

In 1906 the Hague convention assured the neutrality of hospital ships and criminalized the cruel treatment of prisoners of war.

The Swedish financier Alfred Nobel, who had made a lot of money in the explosives industry, established the Peace Prize (1985), which, because of recipients like Henry Kissinger and Yasser Arafat, has shown itself, at times, to be an ironic joke. The American Andrew Carnegie also established the International Peace Foundation, which, unfortunately, did not accomplish much beyond the production of certain publications that few people read and which nobody paid much attention to. (Sic transit gloria mundi!)

The Rivalry Between Germany and France:

After the Franco-Prussion War in 1870 (eighteen seventy), the Germans annexed the territories of Alsace and Lorraine--an act that provoked strong anti-German sentiments in the French, and the French hoped that in time they would be able to reconquer them. The German chancellor Bismarck was aware of these intentions and used his immense diplomatic skills to neutralize and isolate France.

During this period, England was preoccupied with maintaining its world-wide empire--a circumstance that allowed Bismarck to install his own emperor, Wilhelm I, on the throne of Germany. Afterward, with Franz Joseph of Austria and Alexander II of Russia, he established the "League of the Three Emperors." This alliance grew weaker in 1877, and Bismarck forged stronger relations with Austria, forming the Triple Alliance. Afterward Russia signed a new treaty with Germany. This very astute foreign policy isolated France from the other European powers and assured that, for the moment at least, the French would not be able to recuperate the territories of Alsace and Lorraine.

When William II became the emperor of Germany, he had his own political ambitions (but without the profound knowledge of Bismarck on the balance of power among the European empires). He forced Bismarck to retire in 1890. He then did not renew the treaty between Germany and Russia, and France saw a new opportunity to forge an alliance with the Czar. France and Britain then signed a treaty which, with the Anglo-Russian alliance of 1907, produced the "Triple Entente" and the end of the diplomatic isolation of France that Bismarck had prepared so skillfully.

The Colonial Expansion of Germany:

Wilhelm II was not as astute as Bismarck, who was aware of the dangers of expanding Germany beyond its European territories, and he searched out opportunities to satisfy his expansionist ambitions. In the war between Japan and China, he supported Japan and afterward was able to penetrate China with the Japanese, provoking irritation among the British. In 1902 he added to this irritation by constructing the Baghdad Railway.

In 1904 Germany did what it could to weaken the power of the French in the north of Africa. France and Spain had divided Morocco between themselves, and Wilhelm II disembarked in Tangiers in 1905 (nineteen oh five), declaring his support for the sultan. Nonetheless, after the Conference of Algeciras in the following year, his plans for destabilizing the division of Morocco between the French and the Spanish ultimately failed.

This incident did not resolve the problems of rivalry in Morocco between the French and the Germans. In 1911 great problems of competition emerged between German and French companies that operated in Morocco. In both countries nationalist rivalry revived when Spanish troops invaded Larache. Under the pretext of protecting the interests of his subjects in this zone, Wilhelm II dispatched the battleship Panther to Agadir, and the French concluded that probably Germany was going to construct a naval base there.

England also feared the military expansion of Germany into Africa, and the English public showed strong resentment toward Germany. Wilhelm II decided to recognize the sovernity of France in French Morocco after Germany was ceded certain territories in Camaroon. This transaction kept the peace in this part of Africa without eliminating German and Anglo-French rivalry, which continued growing.

The Crisis in Bosnia:

During the conflict between the Germans and the French in Morocco, two strong empires, Russia and Austria/Hungary, both having imperial designs in the Balkans, created another focus of tension. The ambitions of Russia were to secure for itself access to the Black Sea, and Austria wanted to impose its sovereignty on the slavic peoples of the Balkans.

To accomplish its ambitions, Russia started the construction of a railroad that would unite the Danube with the Adriatic Sea, and Austria started the construction of another railway to Salonica. Both countries had conflicts with the "young Turks," who had ambitions to modernize their country.

Russia also wanted to unify the different Slavic peoples, an ambition that conflicted with the desires of Austria to control the slavic populations in the Balkans. Austria's response was the annexation of Bosnia and Herzogovina, provoking a strong nationalistic reaction, especially among the Serbs. But despite Russian support, the Slavic people of the Balkans had to accept their occuption by Austria because of the strength of the Triple Alliance, but their nationalistic posture became radicalized.

War in the Balkans:

The Balkan League, whose members were Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece, confronted and weakened the Ottoman Empire, causing great resentment among the Turks, who had lost Libya and Rhodes to Italy in 1912 (nineteen twelve). The Balkan League then had to confront Bulgaria, which was planning an invasion of Serbia with the assistance of Russia. Bulgaria capitulated before Serbia, and the Treaty of Bucharest fixed the borders between the two nations. But the Balkan crisis caused growing tension among the European powers.

Armed Peace:

Germany, France, and Russia inaugurated programs to increase and perfect the armaments of their respective military forces, making use of an increasing number of industries whose specialty was to make war materiel, and increasing their budgets destined for military production.

The Germans also tried to increase their naval power, which caused great worry among the English, who up to then had unquestionable maritime superiority. In 1905 (nineteen oh five) the English Lord of the Admiralty, Fisher, had recommended to the English king, Edward VII, the destruction of the German fleet. But the Germans intensified their efforts to increase the number of ships in their fleet as a result of an agreement between Great Britain and France in 1912 (nineteen twelve).

The great danger of all arms races is that the country who has the largest military forces wants to use them before their adversaries decide to use their own munitions, reducing possibilities of retaliation.

Six Nations, Two Alliances:

The breakdown of the Bismarckian system gave Italy new diplomatic opportunities, and the Italians joined the German and Austro-Hungarian alliance, forming the Triple Alliance in 1882 (eighteen eighty-two). In the meantime the Russians joined the Franco-Britannic alliance, forming the Triple Entente. But later on Italy re-evaluated its options between both alliances and finally intervened against its previous allies.

The First World War Begins:

The tension provoking the war increased very rapidly and had its first explosion in the Balkans. Here is a list of the first events of the war:

(1) The Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated in Sarajevo by a Bosnian (Bosnia then was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire). Austria accused Serbia of indirect complicity in this event, transmitted a very severe ultimatum to Serbia, and declared war against Serbia on June 18, 1914.

(2) Russia had announced that it would not allow an invasion of Serbia and decreed partial mobilization against Austria on the 29th of July.

(3) Germany declared that it would not allow the continuation of this military action by Russia.

(4) Russia then decreed general mobilization.

(5) Germany asked that France, an ally of Russia, maintain a position of neutrality.

(6) France did not accept the German proposal and decreed general mobilization.

(7) On August 1 Germany declared war against Russia.

(8) On August 2, Germany demanded that Belgium allow its military forces to go through its territory to invade France.

(9) On August 3, Germany declared war against France.

(10) England decided to start its participaion in the war because of the violation of Belgium's neutrality.

(11) Though Italy was an ally of Germany and Austria, the Italians declared their neutrality in the first part of the war and afterward supported the forces of France, England, and Russia.

After declaring war against France, the Germans intended to invade that country using an old plan that General von Schlieffen had elaborated in 1905 (nineteen oh five) when he was the most important military planner of Germany.

The von Schlieffen plan consisted of invading France through Belgium, and going westward very rapidly to surround and lay siege to Paris.

The French had their Plan XVII, elaborated by General Joffre in 1911, which consisted of frustrating the invasion at the north of Luxemburg. They established a strong defensive line from Belfort to Meziers, next to the territories of Alsace and Lorraine, which they hoped to conquer immediately. Because of this strategy, the French left a gap of 200 kilometers--from Meziers to the sea, which the German army was able to penetrate without difficulty.

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